[ Home | Articles | Account | People | Projects | FAQ ] Omitting Git-ignored files in Emacs dired
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"> <html> <head> <meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"> <title></title> </head> <body>Adding the following snippet to your .emacs file will cause Emacs’ dired mode to omit all files ignored by Git. This only works if you have dired-omit-mode on, which is ordinarily bound to Meta-o.
(add-hook ‘dired-load-hook #’(lambda nil (load “dired-x” t)))
(defvar dired-omit-regexp-orig (symbol-function ‘dired-omit-regexp))
(defun dired-omit-regexp ()
(let ((file (expand-file-name “.git”))
parent-dir)
(while (and (not (file-exists-p file))
(progn
(setq parent-dir
(file-name-directory
(directory-file-name
(file-name-directory file))))
;; Give up if we are already at the root dir.
(not (string= (file-name-directory file)
parent-dir))))
;; Move up to the parent dir and try again.
(setq file (expand-file-name “.git” parent-dir)))
;; If we found a change log in a parent, use that.
(if (file-exists-p file)
(let ((regexp (funcall dired-omit-regexp-orig)))
(assert (stringp regexp))
(concat
regexp
(if (> (length regexp) 0)
“\\|” “”)
“\\(“
(mapconcat
#’(lambda (str)
(concat “^”
(regexp-quote
(substring str 13
(if (= ?/ (aref str (1- (length str))))
(1- (length str))
nil)))
“$”))
(split-string (shell-command-to-string
“git clean -d -x -n”)
“\n” t)
“\\|”)
“\\)”))
(funcall dired-omit-regexp-orig))))
A note to fellow Emacs coders: I tried writing this as a piece of defadvice, rather than hijacking the definition of dired-omit-regexp, but for some reason it never called this function.
</body>
</html>
A new Ledger mailing list
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 3.2//EN"> <html> <head> <meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"> <title></title> </head> <body>The Ledger project now has a new mailing list, hosted at []. This was requested by several users who were not happy with the current web forums being used. Note that you do not have to join the group just to post a question. I’ll be keeping the web forums up for another year or so, but will start discouraging their use.
Also, you can find a few of us on IRC at irc.freenode.net, on the channel #ledger. My own nick is “johnw”. Come say hello! </body> </html>
Using Git as a versioned data store in Python
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"><html><head><meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"><title></title></head><body>Git has sometimes been described as a versioning file-system which happens to support the underlying notions of version control. And while most people do simply use Git as a version control system, it remains true that it can be used for other tasks as well.
For example, if you ever need to store mutating data in a series of snapshots, Git may be just what you need. It’s fast, efficient, and offers a large array of command-line tools for examining and mutating the resulting data store.
To support this kind of usage – for the upcoming purpose of maintaining issue tracking data in a Git repository – I’ve created a Python class that wraps Git as a basic shelve object. Here is how you normally use the standard shelve module:
import shelve
data = shelve.open('data.db')
# data.db may or may not have existed on disk before now. If not,
# We're Manipulating an Empty Dictionary. If so, we can examine or
# modify the previous run's state data. In both cases, the database
# is manipulated like a standard Python dictionary.
data[key] = "Hello, world!"
data.sync() # Write out changes to the dictionary
del data[key]
data.close() # Close and clean up, sync'ing only if necessaryThis provides the simplest kind of database, without any query language or notion of whether previous state did or did not exist. Both of those are services you’d have to layer on top of the shelve object if you wanted them.
Now consider gitshelve. Whereas the Python shelve module stores your data by pickling all of the dictionary values, I pass whatever data you place in the dictionary straight on to Git’s standard input. In the default mode, this means you work strictly with string data:
import gitshelve
data = gitshelve.open(repository = '/tmp/data.git')
data[key] = "Hello, world!"
Data.Sync() # Repository is created if it doesn't exist
del data[key]
data.close()The interface is identical, but with the Git version you can now examine the resulting repository’s yourself, using regular Git commands:
$ GIT_DIR=/tmp/data.git git logBy default, the commits have no associated comment text, but the sync method doesn’t accept parameters. If you wish to add transaction notes, use the commit method instead:
data.commit("This is a comment")You can store data this way either in a separate repository, or in named branches within any repository. If the repository argument is not given, the named branch within the current Git repository is used. An exception will be raised, however, if you do this and there is no Git repository related to the current directory.
# I'm expecting to use the 'data' branch of the current repository, but
# I ran the script in a directory unknown to Git!
data = gitshelve.open(branch = 'data')
# It appears to work, because no Git commands are run until the last
# possible moment
data['foo/bar/hello.txt'] = "Hello!"
# This raises an exception, because there is no current repository. To fix
# it, either run "git init", or use a specific 'repository' argument above.
data.commit("I just said hello")The really nice thing about using Git this way is that you get all of its best features for free.<h3 id="addednon-textvalues">Added non-text values</h3>
If you have a need to store non-textual values, you’ll have to let gitshelve know how to deal with them. I don’t do any such handling by default, because of the big chance of doing the wrong thing, and having you not find out about it until it’s much too late. Just pickling data like shelve does isn’t very smart, for example, because it will wreak havoc on Git’s merge algorithms should you ever need to incorporate new data from another source.
So, let’s see how to add a custom data translator. First, you need to subclass a new type of gitbook, which is the wrapper used to interface with the blobs in the Git repository. There are only two methods you need to override:
class my_gitbook(gitshelve.gitbook):
def serialize_data(self, data):
return object_to_string(data)
def deserialize_data(self, data):
return object_from_string(data)Now you must define object_to_string and object_from_string, which should examine the types of the objects passed and turn them into merge-friendly string as appropriate. Certain forms of XML work well for this job, as do ini-style configuration files in some cases. It’s up to you and what works best for your usage.
Once you have this new class type, you must pass it to the gitshelve.open function:
data = gitshelve.open(repository = '/tmp/foo', book_type = my_gitbook)Every time you open a gitshelve, it must walk through the assoicated branch and determine its contents in order to build the key/value relationships in the dictionary. If you find that this ever gets slow, what you can do is just pickle the gitshelve! The only caveat is that you must take care to delete it if the HEAD you created it from is different from the current HEAD. Here’s an example:
import gitshelve
import cPickle
import os
data = None
if os.path.isfile('data.cache'):
fd = open('data.cache', 'rb')
data = cPickle.load(fd)
# I'm using an arbitrary file name here, __HEAD__
if data['__HEAD__'] != data.current_head():
data = None # Out of date, we can't use it
if not data:
data = gitshelve.open(branch = 'data')
data['__HEAD__'] = data.current_head()
# ... for data sets with enormous quantities of tiny files, this
# could really speed things up ...The gitshelve module is being maintained as part of the git-issue project, which is yet another attempt to bring distributed bug tracking to Git. Actually, I tend to support multiple repositories as data backends, but right now Git is my initial focus. You can clone the project and test it out as such:
git clone git://github.com/jwiegley/git-issues.git
cd git-issues
python t_gitshelve.pyIf see “OK” at the end of the unit tests, you’re good to go! There isn’t much documentation on gitshelve.py itself right now, beyond this blog entry, but then again the shelve-like interface is simple enough that you really shouldn’t need much more.</body></html>
Emacs Chess now hosted at GitHub
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 3.2//EN"><html><head><meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"><title></title></head><body>Emacs Chess is a fully featured chess client written entirely in Emacs Lisp. You can use it to play against other people on freechess.org, or against popular chess engines like gnuchess and crafty. It supports graphical rendering of chess boards within Emacs (in 2D), ASCII displays, and even electronic chess boards, or producing output appropriate braille for readers. Adding a new back-end is trivial. It also comes with a library for inspecting and reasoning about chess positions.
This project is looking for someone who loves Emacs, Lisp and the game of chess, to fork it and take over as maintainer. The FSF has agreed to include Emacs Chess as part of the Emacs distribution, but I’ve held off because of a few remaining issues I want to see resolved before it goes mainstream. It does work quite well, however, and I have friends who use it as their sole client for playing chess online.
Emacs Chess is now being hosted at GitHub, which should make it easier for others to contribute:
http://github.com/jwiegley/emacs-chessIf you’d like to just clone it and try it out, run the following and then see the README:
git clone git://github.com/jwiegley/emacs-chess.git
cd emacs-chess
git submodule init
git submodule update # grab the 2D pieces and sound sets
makeAfter it compiles, add the emacs-chess directory to your load-path, load chess.el, and then type M-x chess!
If anyone is interested in taking over as the maintainer, or would like to contribute those last few weeks of work necessary to getting this project delivered with GNU Emacs, please contact me.</body></html>
Ready Lisp version 20080428 now available
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 3.2//EN"><html><head><meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"><title></title></head><body>There is a new version of Ready Lisp for Mac OS X available. This version is based on SBCL 1.0.16, and requires OS X Leopard 10.5. The most notable change from the previous version is that 64-bit mode and experimental threading are no longer supported, since both have been known to have issues on OS X, while the purpose of Ready Lisp is to smoothly introduce Common Lisp to new users.
What is Ready Lisp? It’s a binding together of several popular Lisp packages for OS X, including: Aquamacs, SBCL and SLIME. Once downloaded, you’ll have a single application bundle which you can double-click – and find yourself in a fully configured Common Lisp REPL. It’s ideal for OS X users who want to try out Lisp with a minimum of hassle. The download is approximately 76 megabytes.
There is a GnuPG signature for this file in the same directory; append .asc to the above filename to download it. To install my public key onto your keyring, use this command:
$ gpg --keyserver pgp.mit.edu --recv 0x824715A0Once installed, you can verify the download using the following command:
$ gpg --verify ReadyLisp.dmg.ascFor more information, see the Ready Lisp project page.</body></html>
Git from the bottom up
In my pursuit to understand Git, it’s been helpful for me to understand it from the bottom up — rather than look at it only in terms of its high-level commands. And since Git is so beautifully simple when viewed this way, I thought others might be interested to read what I’ve found, and perhaps avoid the pain I went through finding it.Diving into Git
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"><html><head><meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"><title></title></head><body>This week I decided to convert my Ledger repository over to Git. Previously I’d been using Subversion for about 4 years, and CVS for 1 year before that. There was a brief flirt with Darcs, and Mercurial, but neither ever attracted me enough to convert the repository officially.
Why did I choose Git? Actually, I’d looked at Git before, maybe a year ago, and decided it was too complex and funky. But some recent articles — and new versions of Git — prompted me to look again. Yes, it still looks complex, but then again, UNIX is complex and I’ve never stopped loving that since I made my first terminal connection. In fact, when you look at Git in terms of the UNIX philosophy, rather than as a single application, it starts making a whole lot more sense. (It was written by a UNIX-ish kernel developer, after all).
Migrating my official repository represented a special challenge, because I decided I wanted my entire history, not just the Subversion parts of it. I mean, I wanted to pull the CVS repo out of the archives and thread it along with the Subversion repo into a nice, coherent history going all the way back to version 0.1.
With other tools — even Mercurial — I would have shied away from such an undertaking. But Git not only made it possible, it was even straightforward and rather fun to do. This article chronicles my adventures at manually pasting together a version control history, and how powerfully Git was able to handle this task — which would have been patently impossible using CVS or Subversion.<h2>Importing the CVS history</h2>
The first step was to import the CVS history. The Ledger project began in late August 2003, but I didn’t start using version control to track it until 24 Sep. Lucikly I had an old backup image on my laptop and was able to start hacking right away. The command to pull this initial history into Git was:
$ mkdir ledger.cvs; cd ledger.cvs; git init
$ git-cvsimport -d /tmp/cvs -v -m -p -Z,9 ledger
In this case, /tmp/cvs is where I copied the CVS repository from my backup image, since CVS requires write access in order to do fie and folder locking. The command ran very quickly, since the history was only 1 year long. After it completed, I was able to run git log right away and see what my initial commits looked like.<h2>Importing the Subversion history</h2>
The next step was to import my Subversion history from the Sourceforge server. Actually, I copied it to my local disk first which made things go much quicker. I imported this into a new repo, running the command from the same parent directory as ledger.cvs above:
$ git svn clone --no-metadata --prefix=svn/ file:///tmp/svn/ledger \
--trunk=trunk --branches=branches --tags=tags
I used the --no-metadata flag because I didn’t want git-svn-id tags littering my commit comments with uselessly redundant information. Since I don’t plan on using Subversion again for this project, there was no need to retain the tracking info.
After about 30 minutes the command completed, and presented me with a repository where the trunk, and every branch and tag, existed as remote branches. When I ran git log trunk, I saw all my Subversion history.<h2>Rebasing one history on top of another</h2>
The Subversion history was started by checking in the contents of my source tree at some particular moment in time. The question is, how do I now base the Subversion history on the CVS history, in such a way that the connection is seamless? It turns out this is incredibly easy to do with an amazingly powerful command: git-rebase.
I’ll go ahead and do this work in yet another repository, just to show how easily Git handles these kinds of things:
$ mkdir ledger.all; cd ledger.all; git init
$ git remote add cvs ../ledger.cvs/.git
$ git remote add svn ../ledger/.git
$ git fetch cvs # bring in all the CVS commits
$ git fetch svn # bring in all the Subversion commits
Now that both histories existed in one repository, I needed just one more bits of information. Namely, I needed to know the base commit of the Subversion tree (the first checkin I ever made to it). This checkin looks like a bunch of file adds, since all I did was copy in a big set of files.
$ git log | tail -10
I wrote this commit’s hash number down and kept it in a safe place. I really only needed to know the first 6 or 7 characters. Let’s assume it was bd39abb.
Next I needed to know if anything significant had changed between the last CVS commit and the first SVN commit. This would mean any changes made during the transition between version control systems. Ideally there would be none, but you never know. I went ahead and applied these changes as a patch within a new local branch, which was based on the old CVS history:
$ git checkout -b cvs-work cvs/master
$ git diff cvs/master..bd39abb | patch -p1
$ find . -type f | xargs git add
$ git commit -m "Changes between CVS and Subversion"
What this did for me is to create a branch whose final commit is identical to the starting state of the Subversion branch. It should be painless now to “rebase” the Subversion branch so that the parent of its first commit becomes the last commit of the CVS history:
$ git checkout -b svn-work svn/master
$ git rebase cvs-work
This command took a while, since it effectively “re-commited” every single commit object in the entire Subversion history. Also, since the first commit is now a null-op — the one where I checked in the current state of my files into Subversion — it just disappeared altogether from the history. The output from git log now shows my entire history from beginning to end.
I did encounter a problem here with commits that had no checkin comment. In that case, I had to supply a “no comment” string manually, and then resume the rebase operation with git rebase --continue. And if at any time I might have decided against the rebase operation, or if there were major problems, a simple git rebase --abort= would have put me right back where I started.
With the svn-work branch now representing my entire history from start to finish, I decided to make it my new local master:
$ git branch -D master<h2>Cleaning up history</h2>
$ git branch -m svn-work master
There was a time during my Subversion days when I hastily checked in over 15 megabytes worth of dependent tool chains, thinking it would be easier for my users to obtain the exact version I was using. Many commits later I decided against this, but there was no way to avoid the fact that Subversion holds onto your mistakes forever, permanently cluttering the repository with these dead files. What I wanted to know was, can I clean those turds out of my Git history, thus reducing my ridiculously large 77 Mb repository (before packing, 31 Mb after)?
The answer was a surprsingly easy Yes; and one made possible, again, by the glorious rebase command.
The first step was to find two different commits: the one where I added the tool chain tarballs, and the one where I removed it. This can be done fairly quickly using the log command:
$ git log --stat
I just searched for “.gz”, since I knew all the tarballs ended with it. Sure enough, they were checked in by commit 87abc32 and removed by commit 7734ff0.
To edit a repository’s history, use the rebase command with its interactive option, starting it from the parent of the first commit you want to change:
$ git rebase -i 87abc32^
This command says: starting with the parent of commit 87abc32, I want the ability to rewrite, delete, or re-order all the commits that come after it. What you should see after a bit of thinking is a file with a bunch of lines that begin with “pick”. If you were to write this file out now and exit — not making any changes — it would reapply every commit in the file starting with the first. This changes the commit ids, so you can’t do this if you have observers pulling from your repository. Do it only in local branches, or before you publish your repo, as was my case here.
What I needed was to find the line pick 7734ff0 and move it right after the first line, which was pick 87abc32. I then changed the word “pick” to “squash” in the second line, meaning that I wanted rebase to put the two commits together, resulting in a commit whose diff represented the cumulative changes of the two. Since the first commit added the files (among other things), and the second commit removed them, the final result will be a commit with no tarballs in it at all, just all the other changes that happened in 87abc32.
It took about a minute for this to run, but at the end I was able to look at my new log and not see any trace of a tarball anywhere.<h2>“Bring out your dead”</h2>
The size of my .git directory, however, was still a dismaying 77 Mb. I ran git prune — to remove the repository objects no longer being referenced — but it didn’t change. What was going on? I then ran this command:
$ git fsck --unreachable
$ git fsck --lost-found
dangling commit ....
dangling blob ....
Although the --unreachable option didn’t show anything as being available for pruning, the --lost-found option showed me the very commits I had just removed, and their associated blobs (the tarballs I was concerned about). But why was Git still holding onto them?
It turns out that Git has a very, very cool feature where it keeps track of every change you make to your repository. Say, for example, that you “pop off” the most recent commit in your branch, effectively deleting it:
$ git reset --hard HEAD^
This command removes the last commit from your repository’s history and resets your working tree to match the new HEAD. It’s like the commit never happened, and so it should be gone forever now, right? Well, the real answer is: not yet.
Git still holds a pointer to your commit in the form of a “reflog”. The reflog keeps track of every change you make to the repository, allowing you to examine and possibly recover them. For example, if you used the reflog command right after your reset command you might see something like this:
$ git reflog
bc180ef... HEAD@{0}: reset --hard HEAD^: updating HEAD
It even has a hash value, which is just like a regular commit! In fact, it is a commit, except that it’s more like a “meta commit”. That is, it’s not a commit reflecting a change you’ve made to your project’s sources, but rather a commit that represents the change you just made to the repository itself. Here’s a few commands you can use to examine the reflog commit more closely:
$ git cat-file -t bc180ef # prove to me that it's a commit
$ git ls-tree -l bc180ef # what data is it holding onto?
$ git show bc180ef # show me a patch of what I dropped
Because this commit exists in your repository’s reflog, all the blobs it references — and the file copies reflecting those changes — will continue to live on. How long? The default is 30 days. Which means that git prune and git gc will not actually delete the space taken up by that commit for another month.
In the case of my giant tarballs I wanted to realize the space savings now. So I needed to prune the reflog itself such that no commit anywhere would reference my dead tarballs:
$ git reflog expire --expire=1.minute refs/heads/master
$ git fsck --unreachable # now I see those tarball blobs!
$ git prune # hasta la vista, baby
# git gc # cleanup and repack the repo
These commands wiped out the reflog history for the specified branch (master in this case), cleaned up all the dead space, and squeezed out the redundant bits. That 77 Mb unpacked repository became a nicely packed, 2.1 Mb one.<h2>The reality wasn’t quite so easy</h2>
Figuring all this out took me some time: about 16 straight hours, and the need to restart the whole process maybe 20 times. But once I got the hang of it, I found that git’s various component tools make a whole lot of sense. There is real power here, waiting to be tapped by higher-level commands and interfaces. The kind of surgery I was able to perform — in real-time — was far beyond anything I’d ever experienced in the realm of version control systems.
And it was fast!! I rarely ever had to wait long for a change to happen, even though I was rewriting years of change history.
After this experience, far from being put off by the learning curve, I’m completely sold now. I feel like my data is wholly under my control, not subject to arbitrary things like version numbers or branch labels, etc. Everything is just a commit to Git, and the objects linked to those commits. Chain commits together from parent to child and you have a history; if a commit has multiple children, that’s a branch, while multiple parents represent a merge. How much simpler can you get?
I’ve found that sometimes, the simpler a concept is the more complex its explanation becomes — because true simplicity allows for the greatest range of expressive forms.</body></html>
Run the Spotlight indexer at a lower priority
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"><html><head><meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"><title></title></head><body>I realized the other day that on OS X, the Spotlight indexing process is started using launchd. This makes it very easy to modify the launchd configuration script to insure that background indexing uses the least amount of CPU and I/O bandwidth possible.
Edit the configuration script by running this command as root:
# open /System/Library/LaunchDaemons/com.apple.metadata.mds.plist
You should find yourself in the Property List Editor application. Now add two keys at the top-level, one named LowPriorityIO, which is a boolean set to true, and another named Nice which should be an integer set to 20.
Now whenever the mds spawns mdworker processes to index recent changes to the file system, it won’t get in your way quite as much as before. (Without this change, mdworker processes run at the same priority as user processes, according to output from the ps axl command).</body></html>
Script of the week: linkdups
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"><html><head><meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"><title></title></head><body>It’s been a while since I’ve posted a script; life has been distracting lately. I also wanted to let this current script mature a lot more before sharing it, as it has the potential to be destructive. Use wisely!
It’s name is linkdups, and it’s a Python program to recursively walk through a directory tree and hard-links any files together whose contents match exactly. That means that if you have two files, each taking up 10 Kb, afterwards they will be linked to the same contents for a total savings of 10 Kb.
This type of space savings only works for media that never changes. It’s great for use inside of archival disk images, website mirrors, backup directories, etc.
It seems that most programmers, at some point or another, writes a script to do exactly this kind of thing. My brother was telling me the other day about one he’d written.
The main purpose of this script is to be extremely efficient. I tested it against a directory hierarchy containing over 40 million entries, many of which required hard-linking. My requirements were that memory consumption never grew beyond a small, startup footprint, and that it not waste cycles computing unnecessary details (like checksumming everything and then looking for matches).
Here’s how the algorithm works:
--verbose option to watch the algorithm do its work.The script is also designed to be abortable. You can hit Control-C any time if you get bored, and your files will be left in a good state. It does as much linking as it can, but once Control-C is pressed, it stops wherever it is, wraps up the last task, and ends safely.
It can be downloaded from my FTP server: linkdups.py.</body></html>
Defragmentation and disk images
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"><html><head><meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy for Mac OS X (vers 31 October 2006 - Apple Inc. build 13), see www.w3.org"><title></title></head><body>There has been a small debate among some Mac users about whether defragmenting your disks is necessary for the smooth operation of OS X. I’ve always been in the camp of those who do it regularly, because I’ve seen what my disk ends up looking like after a few weeks of not doing it (and how pretty the graph looks afterwards). It could all be psychological, but I find the progress bar rather hypnotizing, and my wife has been known to find me staring at it for hours on end. Ok, very psychological.
Well, I’ve found one circumstance where defragmentation is definitively helpful: compressing sparse disk images.
I have a habit of creating encrypted disk images for every client I work for. A lot happens in those images, which tend to grow and shrink quite a bit. OS X has a command to squeeze out the unused space, which looks like this:
$ hdiutil compact DiskImage.sparseimage
I just ran this command on one of my work images, and it reported a savings of 786 Mb out of 3 Gb. Just for interest’s sake, I ran iDefrag on the same volume, which eliminated the small amount of fragmentation that had built up, and compacted the files down toward the beginning of the image.
Running hdiutil compact on the same disk image again resulted in a further savings of 518 Mb! Given that the image itself is now 1.4 Gb, that’s about a 30% further reduction.
So, if you’re like me and you use lots of virtual disk images — and you’ve always wondered if defragmentation tools were worth anything at all — here’s one reason to consider it.</body></html>
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